专肽生物_定制多肽合成服务_多肽合成定制服务_多肽合成厂家_多肽合成公司

Definition
Apoptosis or programmed cell death is a normal component of the development and health of multicellular organisms. Cells die in response to a variety of stimuli and during apoptosis they do so in a controlled, regulated fashion.

Discovery
In 1885,  Flemming W described the process of programmed cell death. John Kerr's discovery, in late 1960s, initially called "shrinkage necrosis" but which he later renamed "apoptosis", came about when his attention was caught by a curious form of liver cell death during his studies of acute liver injury in rats 1,2.  Kerr in 1972 proposed the term apoptosis is for mechanism of controlled cell deletion, which appears to play a complementary but opposite role to mitosis in the regulation of animal cell populations. Its morphological features suggest that it is an active, inherently programmed phenomenon, and it has been shown that it can be initiated or inhibited by a variety of environmental stimuli, both physiological and pathological 3. 

Structural Characteristics
Heterodimerization between members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins is a key event in the regulation of programmed cell death. The molecular basis for heterodimer formation was investigated by determination of the solution structure of a complex between the survival protein Bcl-xL and the death-promoting region of the Bcl-2-related protein Bak. The structure and binding affinities of mutant Bak peptides indicate that the Bak peptide adopts an amphipathic  helix that interacts with Bcl-xL through hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Mutations in full-length Bak that disrupt either type of interaction inhibit the ability of Bak to heterodimerize with Bcl-xL 4.

The structure of the 16–amino acid peptide complexed with a biologically active deletion mutant of Bcl-xL was determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The structure was determined from a total of 2813 NMR-derived restraints and is well defined by the NMR data. The Bak peptide forms a helix when complexed to Bcl-xL. The COOH terminal portion of the Bak peptide interacts predominantly with residues in the BH2 and BH3 regions. Melanoma inhibitor of apoptosis (ML-IAP) is a potent anti-apoptotic protein that is upregulated in a number of melanoma cell lines but not expressed in most normal adult tissues. Overexpression of IAP proteins, such as ML-IAP or the ubiquitously expressed X-chromosome-linked IAP (XIAP), in human cancers has been shown to suppress apoptosis induced by a variety of stimuli. X-ray crystal structures of ML-IAP-BIR in complex with Smac- and phage-derived peptides, together with peptide structure−activity-relationship data, indicate that the peptides can be modified to provide increased binding affinity and selectivity for ML-IAP-BIR relative to XIAP-BIR3 5.

Mode of Action
Upon receiving specific signals instructing the cells to undergo apoptosis a number of distinctive changes occur in the cell. Families of proteins known as caspases are typically activated in the early stages of apoptosis. These proteins breakdown or cleave key cellular components that are required for normal cellular function including structural proteins in the cytoskeleton and nuclear proteins such as DNA repair enzymes. The caspases can also activate other degradative enzymes such as DNases, which begin to cleave the DNA in the nucleus.

Apoptotic cells display distinctive morphology during the apoptotic process. Typically, the cell begins to shrink following the cleavage of lamins and actin filaments in the cytoskeleton. The breakdown of chromatin in the nucleus often leads to nuclear condensation and in many cases the nuclei of apoptotic cells take on a "horse-shoe" like appearance. Cells continue to shrink, packaging themselves into a form that allows for their removal by macrophages. There are a number of mechanisms through which apoptosis can be induced in cells. The sensitivity of cells to any of these stimuli can vary depending on a number of factors such as the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins (eg. the Bcl-2 proteins or the Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins), the severity of the stimulus and the stage of the cell cycle. The Bcl-2 family of proteins plays a central role in the regulation of apoptotic cell death induced by a wide variety of stimuli. Some proteins within this family, including Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, inhibit programmed cell death, and others, such as Bax and Bak, can promote apoptosis 6, 7.

Functions

For development, Apoptosis is as needed for proper development as mitosis is.  Examples: The resorption of the tadpole tail at the time of its metamorphosis into a frog occurs by apoptosis.

Integrity of the organism, Apoptosis is needed to destroy cells that represent a threat to the integrity of the organism. Examples: Cells infected with viruses8.

Cells of the immune system, as cell-mediated immune responses wane, the effector cells must be removed to prevent them from attacking body constituents. CTLs induce apoptosis in each other and even in themselves 9.

Cells with DNA damage, damage to its genome can cause a cell to disrupt proper embryonic development leading to birth defects to become cancerous.

References

1.     Kerr JF (1965). A histochemical study of hypertrophy and ischaemic injury of rat liver with special reference to changes in lysosomes. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 90(90):419-435.

2.     Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (1972). Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br. J. Cancer., 26(4):239-257.

3.     O'Rourke MG, Ellem KA (2000). John Kerr and apoptosis. Med. J. Aust., 173(11-12): 616-617.

4.     Franklin MC, Kadkhodayan S, Ackerly H, Alexandru D, Distefano MD, Elliott LO, Flygare JA, Mausisa G, Okawa DC, Ong D, Vucic D, Deshayes K, Fairbrother WJ (2003). Structure and function analysis of peptide antagonists of melanoma inhibitor of apoptosis (ML-IAP). Biochemistry, 42(27):8223-8231.

5.     Sattler M, Liang H, Nettesheim D, Meadows RP, Harlan JE, Eberstadt M, Yoon HS, Shuker SB, Chang BS, Minn AJ, Thompson CB, Fesik SW (1997). Structure of bcl-xl-bak peptide complex: recognition between regulators of apoptosis. Science, 275(5302):983-986.

6.     Hanada M, Aimé-Sempé C, Sato T, Reed JC (1995). Structure-function analysis of Bcl-2 protein. Identification of conserved domains important for homodimerization with Bcl-2 and heterodimerization with Bax. J. Biol. Chem., 270(20):11962-11969.

7.     Cheng EHY, Levine B, Boise LH, Thompson CB, Hardwic JM (1996). Bax-independent inhibition of apoptosis by Bcl-xL.Nature, 379:554-556.

8.     Alimonti JB, Ball TB, Fowke KR (2003). Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS. J Gen Virology., 84(84): 1649-1661.

9.     Werlen G, Hausmann B, Naeher D, Palmer E (2003). Signaling life and death in the thymus: timing is everything. Science. 299(5614):1859-1863.

磷酸肽的合成
在生命过程中发挥重要作用，磷酸化的位置在多肽上的Tyr、Ser，Thr，。目前磷酸肽合成一般都采用磷酸化氨基酸，目前使用的都是单苄基磷酸化氨基酸。磷酸化氨基酸的连接一般采用HBTU/HOBt/DIEA方法，但是目前采用该方法合成磷酸化多肽也有缺点，特别是在合成多磷酸化多肽或氨基酸较长的多肽的时候，连接效率低，最后产品纯度很低，对于这种磷酸化多肽，我们考虑采用后磷酸化方法，其合成过程就是在多肽合成结束后，选择性脱去要标记的氨基酸的侧链保护基，对于Tyr，Thr可以直接使用侧链不保护的氨基酸进行反应，而Ser可以采用Fmoc-Ser（trt），在1% TFA/DCM条件下可以定量的脱除。后磷酸化，采用双苄基亚磷酰胺，四氮唑生成亚磷酰胺四唑活性中间体，连接到羟基上，随后在过氧酸下氧化生成磷酰基，完成反应。

目前，多肽的磷酸化修饰方法主要有两种：

（1）将适当保护的磷酸化氨基酸直接引入到多肽序列中；

（2）多肽序列在树脂上合成完后，再对其中的Ser、Tyr或Thr的侧链羟基进行磷酸化。
 

1）将适当保护的磷酸化氨基酸直接引入到多肽序列中：

即事先将需要磷酸化的氨基酸（Thr,Ser或Tyr）磷酸化并适当保护，然后按照正常SPPS 合成流程将磷酸化单体缩合到多肽指定位点。这种方法操作简便，已经成为多肽单位点 磷酸化修饰的主要方法。



 

2）多肽序列在树脂上合成完后，再对其中的Ser、Tyr或Thr的侧链羟基进行磷酸化：

        采用将磷酸化单体缩合到多肽中的方法进行磷酸化修饰时，磷酸化的氨基酸由于侧链修 饰的较大基团产生的位阻而导致难以与肽链缩合，并且之后的氨基酸引入都会比较困难， 尤其在含有多个磷酸化位点修饰时，合成将变得异常困难，并且最终产物成分复杂，难 以分离，产率极低。
        因此，当肽链中多个位点进行磷酸化时，可以考虑采用将多肽序列 在树脂上合成完后，再对其中的Ser、Tyr或Thr的侧链羟基进行磷酸化：其合成过程主要 就是在多肽合成结束之后，选择性的脱去要标记氨基酸的侧链保护基，对于Tyr，Thr可 以直接使用侧链不保护的氨基酸进行反应。

        侧链保护基在1%TFA/DCM条件下可以定量的脱 除。采用这种方法时，可以采用双苄基亚磷酰胺，四氮唑生成亚磷酰胺四唑活性中间体， 连接到羟基上，然后在过氧酸条件下氧化生成磷酰基，完成反应。

磷酸肽的的介绍

在所有的PTM中，磷酸化是最丰富和最重要的修饰之一。磷酸基团是一个高度带负电的分子，在磷原子周围有一个四面体结构。磷酸化多肽主要指肽链中的Ser、Tyr和Thr 残基的侧链羟基被修饰成酸式磷酸酯多肽。许多激素均是通过提高丝氨酸（Ser）或苏氨酸（Thr）残基的磷酸化状态来调节特异性酶的活性。磷酸化与人类疾病高度相关。例如，tau、α-synuclein和huntingtin的过度/多重磷酸化与人类疾病高度相关，聚集磷酸化也爆发神经退行性疾病的主要原因之一，例如阿尔茨海默氏病、帕金森氏病和亨廷顿氏病。目前，对磷酸化氨基酸的主要研究集中在羟基磷酸单酯型磷酸化氨基酸（O-磷酸化氨基酸），即磷酸化丝氨酸，磷酸化苏氨酸，磷酸化酪氨酸。

专肽生物生物为客户提供pSer、pTyr、pThr和D-pSer、D-pTyr、D-pThr的磷酸化修饰服务，也可以进行二、三、四、五个磷酸化位点修饰的高质量多肽的合成。

烷基化肽-说明

专肽生物可提供多肽烷基化修饰，增加多肽一端的疏水性，例如常见的C18，C16，C14，C12，以及C6等，也可根据客户要求，接其他长度的烷基化链。

细胞穿膜肽-说明
      穿透细胞膜进入细胞内是许多作用靶点在细胞内的生物大分子发挥作用的先决条件，然而生物膜的生物屏障作用阻止了许多高分子物质进入细胞内，从而很大程度地限制了这些物质在治疗领域的应用。因此，如何引导这些物质穿透细胞膜是一个迫切需要解决的问题，目前介导生物大分子穿透细胞膜的方法主要包括细胞穿透肽（cell penetrating peptides，CPPs）、脂质体、腺病毒、纳米颗粒、影细胞等，而CPPs是一类以非受体依赖方式，非经典内吞方式直接穿过细胞膜进入细胞的多肽，它们的长度一般不超过30个氨基酸且富含碱性氨基酸，氨基酸序列通常带正电荷。
      1型人免疫缺陷病毒转录激活因子TAT（human immunodeficiency virus-1 transcription activator， HIV-1 TAT）是第一个被发现的细胞穿透肽，它凭借一种无毒的、高效的方式进入细胞。
      细胞穿透肽（cell penetrating peptides，CPPs）的一个重要特点是可以携带多种不同大小和性质的生物活性物质进入细胞，包括小分子化合物、染料、多肽、多肽核酸（peptide nucleo acid, PNA）、蛋白质、质粒DNA、siRNA、200nm的脂质体、噬菌体颗粒和超顺磁性粒子等，这一性质为其成为靶向药物的良好载体提供了可能。
      CPPs作为载体的优势在于低毒性和无细胞类型的限制，尽管CPPs可输送不同类型的物质进入细胞，但其实际应用多集中于寡肽、蛋白质、寡聚核苷（oligonucleotides，ONs)或类似物的细胞转运。

跨膜机理
不同的细胞穿透肽（CPP）跨膜机制不同，一个细胞穿透肽（CPP）的具体机制有赖于几个参数，如分子大小（携带物质）、温度、细胞类型和细胞内外的稳定性等。细胞穿透肽（CPP）进入细胞的具体机制目前还不清楚，比较流行的推测包括以下三种：
A: 倒置胶粒模型（inverted micelle model），CPPs通过细胞膜上磷脂分子的移动形成倒置胶粒结构，而进入胞浆。
B: 直接穿透，即孔隙结构模型 (pore formation model)，CPPs在细胞膜上组成跨膜的孔隙结构而进入胞浆 。
C: 内吞方式进行细胞摄取。
来源: Cell-penetrating peptides and their therapeutic applications, Victoria Sebbage, BioscienceHorizons, Volume 2, Number 1, March 2009.

细胞穿透肽 HIV TAT
      细胞穿透肽（如HIV TAT）可以以直接穿透和内吞两种方式进入细胞。HIV TAT或者简单的多聚精氨酸可被设计作为有效的药物载体，但CPP（如HIV TAT）是如何实现胞膜转运，目前仍不清楚。
简单的HIV TAT是如何促进象直接穿透和内吞作用的入胞机制的呢？来自Gerard Wong实验室的研究人员研究了在不同的条件下，HIV TAT是如何与细胞质膜、细胞骨架、特异的胞膜受体相互作用，从而诱导了多重转运途径。

      有趣的是，TAT在不同条件下可与同一序列发生多种不同的反应，因而与胞膜、细胞骨架、特异受体相互作用可产生多种转运途径。
      CPP的跨膜机制与多肽序列存在很敏感的关系，如果在一个纯亲水性的CPP中增加一个疏水残基，就能彻底地改变其转运机制，例如，最简单的CPP原型-多聚精氨基（polyR），可以诱导细胞膜上形成跨膜的孔隙结构。疏水氨基酸通过插入胞膜来形成正曲率，精氨酸可同时形成正曲率和负曲率，赖氨酸只能沿一个方向形成负曲率，这就意味着在精氨酸与赖氨酸/疏水物之间存在补偿关系。
      如果疏水性有助于形成负高斯曲率（Gaussian curvature），那为什么TAT肽中的疏水含量相对较低呢？其原因是CPPs都是利用尽可能少的疏水基去形成saddle-splay curvature。序列上的差异很可能只会在膜上诱导短暂的类似孔隙的跨膜结构，从而形成对CPP来说更短的孔隙寿命。由于CPP的氨基酸组成不同，TAT肽在有或无受体情况下都可以介导细胞内吞作用。

     专肽生物提供各类细胞穿膜肽序列，部分由现货，例如TAT，R8，R4等，具体可咨询销售人员。

Definition

Cell permeable peptides (CPPs) are carriers with small peptide domains that can freely cross cell membranes.  They are mainly used as carriers of proteins and nucleic acids into the cell1.

Discovery

The first CPP was discovered independently by two laboratories in 1988 when it was found that the trans-activating transcriptional activator (Tat) from Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) could be efficiently taken up from the surrounding media by numerous cell types in culture2. 

Structural Characteristics

CPPs typically have an amino acid composition containing either a high relative abundance of positively charged, cationic amino acids such as lysine or arginine, or have sequences that contain an alternating pattern of polar/charged amino acids and non-polar, hydrophobic amino acids3.  Some examples include: TAT peptide-YGRKKRRQRRR, lipid membrane translocating peptide-KKAAAVLLPVLLAAP and Antennapedia leader peptide-KKWKMRRNQFWVKVQRG.

Classification

Numerous CPPs have been identified to date and they belong to a wide variety of protein families. For example, some CPPs are amphipathic protein family members3.

Mode of action

CPPs enter the cell with their carrier by either of three mechanisms:  Direct delivery that involves energy independent entry of the CPPs in to the cell4, endocytosis where the cells take up the CPPs by imbibing them with their cell membranes5 and translocation through the formation of transient structures which is yet to be understood6. 

Functions

CPPs have found numerous applications in medicine as drug delivery agents in the treatment of different diseases including cancer, virus inhibitors, contrast agents for cell labeling a classical example is Green Fluorescent protein GFP, as MRI contrast agents, quantum dots7.  TAT is very effective in delivering drugs in vitro and in vivo and so far a peptide that matches its efficiency has not been found7.

References

1.     Wagstaff KM and David JA (2006). Protein Transduction: Cell Penetrating Peptides and Their Therapeutic Applications, Current Medicinal Chemistry, 13 (12), 1371-1387.

2.     Feng S and Holland EC (1988). HIV-1 Tat trans-activation requires the loop sequence within Tar. Nature 334, 165–167.

3.     Stewart KM, Horton KL, Kelley SO (2008). Cell-penetrating peptides as delivery vehicles for biology and medicine, Org Biomol Chem., 6(13), 2242-55.

4.     Luo D, Saltzman WM (2000). Synthetic DNA delivery systems. Nat. Biotechnol, 18, 33-37.

5.     Lundberg M., Wikstrom S and Johansson M (2003). Cell surface adherence and endocytosis of protein transduction domains, Mol. Ther., 8, 143–150.

6.     Deshayes S, Gerbal-Chaloin S, Morris MC, Aldrian-Herrada G, Charnet P, Divita G (2004). On the mechanism of non-endosomial peptide-mediated cellular delivery of nucleic acids, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1667, 141–147.

7.     Temsamani J and Vida P (2004). The use of cell-penetrating peptides for drug delivery, Drug Discovery Today, 9 (23), 1012-1019.

定义
酶是用于生化反应的非常有效的催化剂。它们通过提供较低活化能的替代反应途径来加快反应速度。酶作用于底物并产生产物。一些物质降低或什至停止酶的催化活性被称为抑制剂。
发现
1965年，Umezawa H分析了微生物产生的酶抑制剂，并分离出了抑制亮肽素和抗痛药的胰蛋白酶和木瓜蛋白酶，乳糜蛋白酶抑制的胰凝乳蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶抑制素抑制胃蛋白酶，泛磷酰胺抑制唾液酸酶，乌藤酮抑制酪氨酸羟化酶，多巴汀抑制多巴胺3-羟硫基嘧啶和多巴胺3-羟色胺酶酪氨酸羟化酶和多巴胺J3-羟化酶。最近，一种替代方法已应用于预测新的抑制剂：合理的药物设计使用酶活性位点的三维结构来预测哪些分子可能是抑制剂1。已经开发了用于识别酶抑制剂的基于计算机的方法，例如分子力学和分子对接。
结构特征
已经确定了许多抑制剂的晶体结构。已经确定了三种与凝血酶复合的高效且选择性的低分子量刚性肽醛醛抑制剂的晶体结构。这三种抑制剂全部在P3位置具有一个新的内酰胺部分，而对胰蛋白酶选择性最高的两种抑制剂在P1位置具有一个与S1特异性位点结合的胍基哌啶基。凝血酶的抑制动力学从慢到快变化，而对于胰蛋白酶，抑制的动力学在所有情况下都快。根据两步机理2中稳定过渡态络合物的缓慢形成来检验动力学。
埃米尔•菲舍尔（Emil Fischer）在1894年提出，酶和底物都具有特定的互补几何形状，彼此恰好契合。这称为“锁和钥匙”模型3。丹尼尔·科什兰（Daniel Koshland）提出了诱导拟合模型，其中底物和酶是相当灵活的结构，当底物与酶4相互作用时，活性位点通过与底物的相互作用不断重塑。
在众多生物活性肽的成熟过程中，需要由其谷氨酰胺（或谷氨酰胺）前体形成N末端焦谷氨酸（pGlu）。游离形式并与底物和三种咪唑衍生抑制剂结合的人QC的结构揭示了类似于两个锌外肽酶的α/β支架，但有多个插入和缺失，特别是在活性位点区域。几种活性位点突变酶的结构分析为针对QC相关疾病5的抑制剂的合理设计提供了结构基础。
作用方式
酶是催化化学反应的蛋白质。酶与底物相互作用并将其转化为产物。抑制剂的结合可以阻止底物进入酶的活性位点和/或阻止酶催化其反应。抑制剂的种类繁多，包括：非特异性，不可逆，可逆-竞争性和非竞争性。可逆抑制剂 以非共价相互作用（例如疏水相互作用，氢键和离子键）与酶结合。非特异性抑制方法包括最终使酶的蛋白质部分变性并因此不可逆的任何物理或化学变化。特定抑制剂 对单一酶发挥作用。大多数毒药通过特异性抑制酶发挥作用。竞争性抑制剂是任何与底物的化学结构和分子几何结构非常相似的化合物。抑制剂可以在活性位点与酶相互作用，但是没有反应发生。非竞争性抑制剂是与酶相互作用但通常不在活性位点相互作用的物质。非竞争性抑制剂的净作用是改变酶的形状，从而改变活性位点，从而使底物不再能与酶相互作用而产生反应。非竞争性抑制剂通常是可逆的。不可逆抑制剂与酶形成牢固的共价键。这些抑制剂可以在活性位点附近或附近起作用。
功能
工业应用中， 酶在商业上被广泛使用，例如在洗涤剂，食品和酿造工业中。蛋白酶用于“生物”洗衣粉中，以加速蛋白质在诸如血液和鸡蛋等污渍中的分解。商业上使用酶的问题包括：它们是水溶性的，这使得它们难以回收，并且一些产物可以抑制酶的活性（反馈抑制）。
药物分子，许多药物分子都是酶抑制剂，药用酶抑制剂通常以其特异性和效力为特征。高度的特异性和效力表明该药物具有较少的副作用和较低的毒性。酶抑制剂在自然界中发现，并且也作为药理学和生物化学的一部分进行设计和生产6。
天然毒物 通常是酶抑制剂，已进化为保护植物或动物免受天敌的侵害。这些天然毒素包括一些已知最剧毒的化合物。
神经气体（ 例如二异丙基氟磷酸酯（DFP））通过与丝氨酸的羟基反应生成酯，从而抑制了乙酰胆碱酯酶的活性位点。
参考
1、Scapin G (2006). Structural biology and drug discovery. Curr. Pharm. Des.,      12(17):2087–2097.
2、Krishnan R, Zhang E, Hakansson K, Arni RK, Tulinsky A, Lim-Wilby MS, Levy OE, Semple JE, Brunck TK (1998). Highly selective mechanism-based thrombin inhibitors:  structures of thrombin and trypsin inhibited with rigid peptidyl aldehydes. Biochemistry, 37 (35):12094-12103.
3、Fischer E (1894). Einfluss der configuration auf die wirkung der enzyme. Ber. Dt. Chem. Ges., 27:2985–2993.
4、Koshland DE (1958). Application of a theory of enzyme specificity to protein synthesis. PNAS., 44 (2):98–104.
5、Huang KF, Liu YL, Cheng WJ, Ko TP, Wang AH (2005). Crystal structures of human glutaminyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for protein N-terminal pyroglutamate formation. PNAS., 102(37):13117-13122.
6、Holmes CF, Maynes JT, Perreault KR, Dawson JF, James MN (2002). Molecular enzymology underlying regulation of protein phosphatase-1 by natural toxins. Curr Med Chem., 9(22):1981-1989.

Definition
Enzymes are very efficient catalysts for biochemical reactions. They speed up reactions by providing an alternative reaction pathway of lower activation energy. Enzyme acts on substrate and gives rise to a product. Some substances reduce or even stop the catalytic activities of enzymes are called inhibitors.

Discovery
In 1965, Umezawa H analysed enzyme inhibitors produced by microorganisms and isolated leupeptin and antipain inhibiting trypsin and papain, chymostatin inhibiting chymotrypsin, pepstatin inhibiting pepsin, panosialin inhibiting sialidases, oudenone inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase, dopastin inhibiting dopamine 3-hydroxylase, aquayamycin and chrothiomycin inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine J3-hydroxylase . Recently, an alternative approach has been applied to predict new inhibitors: rational drug design uses the three-dimensional structure of an enzyme's active site to predict which molecules might be inhibitors 1. Computer-based methods for identifying inhibitor for an enzyme have been developed, such as molecular mechanics and molecular docking.

Structural Characteristics
The crystal structures of many inhibitors have been determined. The crystal structures of three highly potent and selective low-molecular weight rigid peptidyl aldehyde inhibitors complexed with thrombin have been determined. All the three inhibitors have a novel lactam moiety at the P3 position, while the two with greatest trypsin selectivity have a guanidinopiperidyl group at the P1 position that binds in the S1 specificity site. The kinetics of inhibition vary from slow to fast with thrombin and are fast in all cases with trypsin. The kinetics are examined in terms of the slow formation of a stable transition-state complex in a two-step mechanism 2.

Emil Fischer in 1894 suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.This is known as "the lock and key" model 3. Daniel Koshland suggested induced fit model where substrate and enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continually reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme 4.

N-terminal pyroglutamate (pGlu) formation from its glutaminyl (or glutamyl) precursor is required in the maturation of numerous bioactive peptides. The structure of human QC in free form and bound to a substrate and three imidazole-derived inhibitors reveals an alpha/beta scaffold akin to that of two-zinc exopeptidases but with several insertions and deletions, particularly in the active-site region. The structural analyses of several active-site-mutant enzymes provide a structural basis for the rational design of inhibitors against QC-associated disorders 5.

Mode of Action
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes interact with substrate and convert them into products. Inhibitor binding can stop a substrate from entering the enzyme's active site and/or hinder the enzyme from catalyzing its reaction. There are a variety of types of inhibitors including: nonspecific, irreversible, reversible - competitive and noncompetitive. Reversible inhibitors bind to enzymes with non-covalent interactions like hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds. Non-specific methods of inhibition include any physical or chemical changes which ultimately denature the protein portion of the enzyme and are therefore irreversible. Specific Inhibitors exert their effects upon a single enzyme. Most poisons work by specific inhibition of enzymes. A competitive inhibitor is any compound which closely resembles the chemical structure and molecular geometry of the substrate. The inhibitor may interact with the enzyme at the active site, but no reaction takes place. A noncompetitive inhibitor is a substance that interacts with the enzyme, but usually not at the active site.  The net effect of a non competitive inhibitor is to change the shape of the enzyme and thus the active site, so that the substrate can no longer interact with the enzyme to give a reaction. Non competitive inhibitors are usually reversible. Irreversible Inhibitors form strong covalent bonds with an enzyme.  These inhibitors may act at, near, or remote from the active site .

Functions
Industrial application, enzymes are widely used commercially, for example in the detergent, food and brewing industries. Protease enzymes are used in 'biological' washing powders to speed up the breakdown of proteins in stains like blood and egg. Problems using enzymes commercially include: they are water soluble which makes them hard to recover and some products can inhibit the enzyme activity (feedback inhibition) .

Drug molecules, many drug molecules are enzyme inhibitors and a medicinal enzyme inhibitor is usually characterized by its specificity and its potency. A high specificity and potency suggests that a drug will have fewer side effects and less toxic. Enzyme inhibitors are found in nature and are also designed and produced as part of pharmacology and biochemistry 6.

Natural poisons are often enzyme inhibitors that have evolved to defend a plant or animal against predators. These natural toxins include some of the most poisonous compounds known.

Nerve gases such as diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) inhibit the active site of acetylcholine esterase by reacting with the hydroxyl group of serine to make an ester.

References

Scapin G (2006). Structural biology and drug discovery. Curr. Pharm. Des.,      12(17):2087–2097.

Krishnan R, Zhang E, Hakansson K, Arni RK, Tulinsky A, Lim-Wilby MS, Levy OE, Semple JE, Brunck TK (1998). Highly selective mechanism-based thrombin inhibitors:  structures of thrombin and trypsin inhibited with rigid peptidyl aldehydes. Biochemistry, 37 (35):12094-12103.

Fischer E (1894). Einfluss der configuration auf die wirkung der enzyme. Ber. Dt. Chem. Ges., 27:2985–2993.

Koshland DE (1958). Application of a theory of enzyme specificity to protein synthesis. PNAS., 44 (2):98–104.

Huang KF, Liu YL, Cheng WJ, Ko TP, Wang AH (2005). Crystal structures of human glutaminyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for protein N-terminal pyroglutamate formation. PNAS., 102(37):13117-13122.

Holmes CF, Maynes JT, Perreault KR, Dawson JF, James MN (2002). Molecular enzymology underlying regulation of protein phosphatase-1 by natural toxins. Curr Med Chem., 9(22):1981-1989.

肉豆蔻酸修饰肽说明:
Myristyl group (Myristic acid), CH3(CH2)12–

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