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DBI (51-70), QATVGDINTERPGMLDFTGK, is also called eikosaneuropeptide (ENP).

定义
酶是用于生化反应的非常有效的催化剂。它们通过提供较低活化能的替代反应途径来加快反应速度。酶作用于底物并产生产物。一些物质降低或什至停止酶的催化活性被称为抑制剂。
发现
1965年，Umezawa H分析了微生物产生的酶抑制剂，并分离出了抑制亮肽素和抗痛药的胰蛋白酶和木瓜蛋白酶，乳糜蛋白酶抑制的胰凝乳蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶抑制素抑制胃蛋白酶，泛磷酰胺抑制唾液酸酶，乌藤酮抑制酪氨酸羟化酶，多巴汀抑制多巴胺3-羟硫基嘧啶和多巴胺3-羟色胺酶酪氨酸羟化酶和多巴胺J3-羟化酶。最近，一种替代方法已应用于预测新的抑制剂：合理的药物设计使用酶活性位点的三维结构来预测哪些分子可能是抑制剂1。已经开发了用于识别酶抑制剂的基于计算机的方法，例如分子力学和分子对接。
结构特征
已经确定了许多抑制剂的晶体结构。已经确定了三种与凝血酶复合的高效且选择性的低分子量刚性肽醛醛抑制剂的晶体结构。这三种抑制剂全部在P3位置具有一个新的内酰胺部分，而对胰蛋白酶选择性最高的两种抑制剂在P1位置具有一个与S1特异性位点结合的胍基哌啶基。凝血酶的抑制动力学从慢到快变化，而对于胰蛋白酶，抑制的动力学在所有情况下都快。根据两步机理2中稳定过渡态络合物的缓慢形成来检验动力学。
埃米尔•菲舍尔（Emil Fischer）在1894年提出，酶和底物都具有特定的互补几何形状，彼此恰好契合。这称为“锁和钥匙”模型3。丹尼尔·科什兰（Daniel Koshland）提出了诱导拟合模型，其中底物和酶是相当灵活的结构，当底物与酶4相互作用时，活性位点通过与底物的相互作用不断重塑。
在众多生物活性肽的成熟过程中，需要由其谷氨酰胺（或谷氨酰胺）前体形成N末端焦谷氨酸（pGlu）。游离形式并与底物和三种咪唑衍生抑制剂结合的人QC的结构揭示了类似于两个锌外肽酶的α/β支架，但有多个插入和缺失，特别是在活性位点区域。几种活性位点突变酶的结构分析为针对QC相关疾病5的抑制剂的合理设计提供了结构基础。
作用方式
酶是催化化学反应的蛋白质。酶与底物相互作用并将其转化为产物。抑制剂的结合可以阻止底物进入酶的活性位点和/或阻止酶催化其反应。抑制剂的种类繁多，包括：非特异性，不可逆，可逆-竞争性和非竞争性。可逆抑制剂 以非共价相互作用（例如疏水相互作用，氢键和离子键）与酶结合。非特异性抑制方法包括最终使酶的蛋白质部分变性并因此不可逆的任何物理或化学变化。特定抑制剂 对单一酶发挥作用。大多数毒药通过特异性抑制酶发挥作用。竞争性抑制剂是任何与底物的化学结构和分子几何结构非常相似的化合物。抑制剂可以在活性位点与酶相互作用，但是没有反应发生。非竞争性抑制剂是与酶相互作用但通常不在活性位点相互作用的物质。非竞争性抑制剂的净作用是改变酶的形状，从而改变活性位点，从而使底物不再能与酶相互作用而产生反应。非竞争性抑制剂通常是可逆的。不可逆抑制剂与酶形成牢固的共价键。这些抑制剂可以在活性位点附近或附近起作用。
功能
工业应用中， 酶在商业上被广泛使用，例如在洗涤剂，食品和酿造工业中。蛋白酶用于“生物”洗衣粉中，以加速蛋白质在诸如血液和鸡蛋等污渍中的分解。商业上使用酶的问题包括：它们是水溶性的，这使得它们难以回收，并且一些产物可以抑制酶的活性（反馈抑制）。
药物分子，许多药物分子都是酶抑制剂，药用酶抑制剂通常以其特异性和效力为特征。高度的特异性和效力表明该药物具有较少的副作用和较低的毒性。酶抑制剂在自然界中发现，并且也作为药理学和生物化学的一部分进行设计和生产6。
天然毒物 通常是酶抑制剂，已进化为保护植物或动物免受天敌的侵害。这些天然毒素包括一些已知最剧毒的化合物。
神经气体（ 例如二异丙基氟磷酸酯（DFP））通过与丝氨酸的羟基反应生成酯，从而抑制了乙酰胆碱酯酶的活性位点。
参考
1、Scapin G (2006). Structural biology and drug discovery. Curr. Pharm. Des.,      12(17):2087–2097.
2、Krishnan R, Zhang E, Hakansson K, Arni RK, Tulinsky A, Lim-Wilby MS, Levy OE, Semple JE, Brunck TK (1998). Highly selective mechanism-based thrombin inhibitors:  structures of thrombin and trypsin inhibited with rigid peptidyl aldehydes. Biochemistry, 37 (35):12094-12103.
3、Fischer E (1894). Einfluss der configuration auf die wirkung der enzyme. Ber. Dt. Chem. Ges., 27:2985–2993.
4、Koshland DE (1958). Application of a theory of enzyme specificity to protein synthesis. PNAS., 44 (2):98–104.
5、Huang KF, Liu YL, Cheng WJ, Ko TP, Wang AH (2005). Crystal structures of human glutaminyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for protein N-terminal pyroglutamate formation. PNAS., 102(37):13117-13122.
6、Holmes CF, Maynes JT, Perreault KR, Dawson JF, James MN (2002). Molecular enzymology underlying regulation of protein phosphatase-1 by natural toxins. Curr Med Chem., 9(22):1981-1989.

Definition
Enzymes are very efficient catalysts for biochemical reactions. They speed up reactions by providing an alternative reaction pathway of lower activation energy. Enzyme acts on substrate and gives rise to a product. Some substances reduce or even stop the catalytic activities of enzymes are called inhibitors.

Discovery
In 1965, Umezawa H analysed enzyme inhibitors produced by microorganisms and isolated leupeptin and antipain inhibiting trypsin and papain, chymostatin inhibiting chymotrypsin, pepstatin inhibiting pepsin, panosialin inhibiting sialidases, oudenone inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase, dopastin inhibiting dopamine 3-hydroxylase, aquayamycin and chrothiomycin inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine J3-hydroxylase . Recently, an alternative approach has been applied to predict new inhibitors: rational drug design uses the three-dimensional structure of an enzyme's active site to predict which molecules might be inhibitors 1. Computer-based methods for identifying inhibitor for an enzyme have been developed, such as molecular mechanics and molecular docking.

Structural Characteristics
The crystal structures of many inhibitors have been determined. The crystal structures of three highly potent and selective low-molecular weight rigid peptidyl aldehyde inhibitors complexed with thrombin have been determined. All the three inhibitors have a novel lactam moiety at the P3 position, while the two with greatest trypsin selectivity have a guanidinopiperidyl group at the P1 position that binds in the S1 specificity site. The kinetics of inhibition vary from slow to fast with thrombin and are fast in all cases with trypsin. The kinetics are examined in terms of the slow formation of a stable transition-state complex in a two-step mechanism 2.

Emil Fischer in 1894 suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.This is known as "the lock and key" model 3. Daniel Koshland suggested induced fit model where substrate and enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continually reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme 4.

N-terminal pyroglutamate (pGlu) formation from its glutaminyl (or glutamyl) precursor is required in the maturation of numerous bioactive peptides. The structure of human QC in free form and bound to a substrate and three imidazole-derived inhibitors reveals an alpha/beta scaffold akin to that of two-zinc exopeptidases but with several insertions and deletions, particularly in the active-site region. The structural analyses of several active-site-mutant enzymes provide a structural basis for the rational design of inhibitors against QC-associated disorders 5.

Mode of Action
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes interact with substrate and convert them into products. Inhibitor binding can stop a substrate from entering the enzyme's active site and/or hinder the enzyme from catalyzing its reaction. There are a variety of types of inhibitors including: nonspecific, irreversible, reversible - competitive and noncompetitive. Reversible inhibitors bind to enzymes with non-covalent interactions like hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds. Non-specific methods of inhibition include any physical or chemical changes which ultimately denature the protein portion of the enzyme and are therefore irreversible. Specific Inhibitors exert their effects upon a single enzyme. Most poisons work by specific inhibition of enzymes. A competitive inhibitor is any compound which closely resembles the chemical structure and molecular geometry of the substrate. The inhibitor may interact with the enzyme at the active site, but no reaction takes place. A noncompetitive inhibitor is a substance that interacts with the enzyme, but usually not at the active site.  The net effect of a non competitive inhibitor is to change the shape of the enzyme and thus the active site, so that the substrate can no longer interact with the enzyme to give a reaction. Non competitive inhibitors are usually reversible. Irreversible Inhibitors form strong covalent bonds with an enzyme.  These inhibitors may act at, near, or remote from the active site .

Functions
Industrial application, enzymes are widely used commercially, for example in the detergent, food and brewing industries. Protease enzymes are used in 'biological' washing powders to speed up the breakdown of proteins in stains like blood and egg. Problems using enzymes commercially include: they are water soluble which makes them hard to recover and some products can inhibit the enzyme activity (feedback inhibition) .

Drug molecules, many drug molecules are enzyme inhibitors and a medicinal enzyme inhibitor is usually characterized by its specificity and its potency. A high specificity and potency suggests that a drug will have fewer side effects and less toxic. Enzyme inhibitors are found in nature and are also designed and produced as part of pharmacology and biochemistry 6.

Natural poisons are often enzyme inhibitors that have evolved to defend a plant or animal against predators. These natural toxins include some of the most poisonous compounds known.

Nerve gases such as diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) inhibit the active site of acetylcholine esterase by reacting with the hydroxyl group of serine to make an ester.

References

Scapin G (2006). Structural biology and drug discovery. Curr. Pharm. Des.,      12(17):2087–2097.

Krishnan R, Zhang E, Hakansson K, Arni RK, Tulinsky A, Lim-Wilby MS, Levy OE, Semple JE, Brunck TK (1998). Highly selective mechanism-based thrombin inhibitors:  structures of thrombin and trypsin inhibited with rigid peptidyl aldehydes. Biochemistry, 37 (35):12094-12103.

Fischer E (1894). Einfluss der configuration auf die wirkung der enzyme. Ber. Dt. Chem. Ges., 27:2985–2993.

Koshland DE (1958). Application of a theory of enzyme specificity to protein synthesis. PNAS., 44 (2):98–104.

Huang KF, Liu YL, Cheng WJ, Ko TP, Wang AH (2005). Crystal structures of human glutaminyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for protein N-terminal pyroglutamate formation. PNAS., 102(37):13117-13122.

Holmes CF, Maynes JT, Perreault KR, Dawson JF, James MN (2002). Molecular enzymology underlying regulation of protein phosphatase-1 by natural toxins. Curr Med Chem., 9(22):1981-1989.

定义
神经肽的长度为3-40个氨基酸，可作为神经递质。它们广泛分布于中枢神经系统和周围神经系统。

发现
神经肽是由约翰·休斯博士和科斯特里茨博士于1975年发现的。它们是内啡肽，内在产生的吗啡样物质，会在体内产生一系列类似药物的作用。可以从序列信息1中鉴定神经肽前体mRNA序列，并且得到的翻译蛋白序列包括信号肽序列和一个或多个神经肽。广泛而复杂的一系列酶处理步骤，包括被激素或前蛋白转化酶切割以及其他翻译后修饰，在创建活性神经肽之前就发生在翻译后的蛋白质序列上  2,3。

结构特征
通过核磁共振（NMR）光谱研究了几种来自软体动物的类似神经肽的构象性质。肽的N末端可变区中的氨基酸取代对溶液中反向转化的种群具有显着影响。通过使用两个独立的NMR参数测得的转弯数，发现使用Helix aspersa的受体膜制剂与IC50值高度相关（r2 = 0.93和0.82）。这些结果表明，构象集合降低了特定肽相对于特定受体4,5的有效浓度。

神经肽Y与人肽相同，并且与禽胰多肽高度同源。神经肽Y和禽胰多肽之间的同源性保留了维持三级结构必不可少的所有残基。结果表明，神经肽保留了紧凑的三级结构，其特征是在N末端的聚脯氨酸II类螺旋和C末端的a螺旋 6之间广泛的疏水相互作用。

已经通过许多孤儿受体之一发现了一些肽，这些受体是内源性配体未知的受体，例如“类阿片受体样1”（ORL1）。随后，已阐明该ORL1受体的内源性激动剂的结构，一种称为孤儿蛋白FQ或伤害感受蛋白的17个氨基酸的肽7。

行动方式
神经肽是由神经元作为细胞间信使释放的肽。一些神经肽充当神经递质，而另一些充当激素。神经肽既可以为我们提供支持，也可以为我们提供帮助。抗炎神经肽可帮助我们减少皮肤发炎。神经肽是自然产生的，可以在非常有限的时间内与靶细胞膜受体在明确的作用位点相互作用。因此，大多数这些内源性化合物的特征在于低的生物屏障渗透性和非常高的酶促降解敏感性。脑室内或全身注射神经肽Y（NPY）可使cast割的雌性大鼠血浆中的促黄体生成激素（LH）水平降低。6。

功能

生物功能，神经肽控制着我们的情绪，能量水平，痛苦和愉悦感，体重以及解决问题的能力；它们还会形成记忆，情感行为，食欲和发炎，修复疤痕和皱纹并调节我们的免疫系统。这些活跃的大脑小信使实际上打开了皮肤7的细胞功能。因此，今天，与神经肽系统相互作用的药物设计是后基因组药物化学研究最广泛的途径之一。

P物质已被确定为负责伤害性信号传递的主要神经肽。内源性阿片类药物是天然神经肽，负责伤害性信号的调节（通常是抑制）。

免疫系统，当它们被分泌时，它们会激活自然杀伤细胞（NK细胞），从而增强我们的免疫系统。

随着内啡肽的分泌越来越多，血管病变使收缩的血管恢复到正常状态，使血液以正常方式流动。大多数成人疾病都始于血管堵塞。内啡肽有助于改善血液循环。

内啡肽通过去除超氧化物具有抗衰老作用。从呼吸进入人体的氧气可以转变为超氧化物。这是造成人类疾病和衰老的最大敌人之一。

抗压力激素，应对压力的能力与我们体内的内啡肽水平成正比。

缓解疼痛的作用是，我们的神经系统在接收到疼痛信号时会分泌神经递质。一旦内啡肽在疼痛的那一刻被释放，内啡肽就会与神经元上的内啡肽受体结合，从而阻止第一种神经递质被分泌出来。

记忆力，神经肽可以改善记忆力，因为它们可以使脑细胞保持年轻健康。

参考

1.     Hummon AB, Richmond TA, Verleyen P, Baggerman G, Huybrechts J, Ewing MA, Vierstraete E, Rodriguez-Zas SL, Liliane SL, Robinson GE (2006). From the genome to the proteome: uncovering peptides in the Apis brain. Science, 27(314):647-649.

2.     Rockwell NC, Krysan DJ, Komiyama T, Fuller RS (2002). Precursor processing by Kex2/Furin Proteases. Chem. Rev., 102:4525–4548.

3.     Von ER, Beck-Sickinger AG (2004). Biosynthesis of peptide hormones derived from precursor sequences. Curr. Med. Chem.,11:2651–2665.

4.     Edison AS, Espinoza E, Zachariah C (1999). Conformational Ensembles: The Role of Neuropeptide Structures in Receptor Binding. The Journal of Neuroscience., 19(15):6318-6326.

5.     Payza K, Greenberg MJ, Price DA (1989). Further characterization of Helix FMRFamide receptors: kinetics, tissue distribution, and interactions with the endogenous heptapeptides. Peptides, 10:657-661.

6.     Allen J, Novotný J, Martin J, Heinrich G (1987). Molecular structure of mammalian neuropeptide Y: Analysis by molecular cloning and computer-aided comparison with crystal structure of avian homologue. PNAS., 84:2532-2536.

7.     Guya J, Lia S,  Pelletier G (1988). Studies on the physiological role and mechanism of action of neuropeptide Y in the regulation of luteinizing hormone secretion in the rat. Regulatory Peptides., 23(2):209-216.